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+[[teaching:cndm:cndm_guides|Back to topics page]]
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 ====== Topic: Emotion ======
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--02-18
+How do our emotions influence decision making?
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 ====== Article Discussed ======
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 Lempert, K. M., & Phelps, E. A. (2014). Neuroeconomics of Emotion and Decision Making. In //Neuroeconomics// (pp. 219–236). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-416008-8.00012-7
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 ====== Brief summary  ======
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 This article was a review of the current approaches to understanding the complex relationship between emotion and decision making. Research today shows that a two-system approach does not suffice in capturing the relationship between emotion and decisions. As emotion and cognition began to be more widely researched together, two issues appeared. One being that cognition without emotion is not necessarily applicable in the real world. The second being that cognition and cognitive neuroscience go hand-in-hand.
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 ====== Cognitive process neuroimaging analysis ======
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 Neurosynth term: “emotion”
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 ===== Top 5 Pubmed articles: =====
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 : Dolcos F, Katsumi Y, Weymar M, Moore M, Tsukiura T, Dolcos S. Emerging Directions in Emotional Episodic Memory. Front Psychol. 2017 Dec 4;8:1867. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01867. eCollection 2017. Review. PubMed PMID: 29255432; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5723010.
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 : Sheppes G, Suri G, Gross JJ. Emotion regulation and psychopathology. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2015;11:379-405. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739. Epub 2015 Jan 2. Review. PubMed PMID: 25581242.
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 ===== Top 5 Neurosynth articles: =====
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 ^[[http://neurosynth.org/studies/25929825/|**5-HTTLPR differentially predicts brain network responses to emotional faces.**]]                                                           ^**Fisher PM, Grady CL, Madsen MK, Strother SC, Knudsen GM**                                                                                                                                               ^**Human brain mapping**                        ^**2015**^[[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25929825|**25929825**]]^
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 |[[http://neurosynth.org/studies/19015104/|**Abnormal cerebral effective connectivity during explicit emotional processing in adults with autism spectrum disorder.**]]                 |**Wicker B, Fonlupt P, Hubert B, Tardif C, Gepner B, Deruelle C**                                                                                                                                         |**Social cognitive and affective neuroscience**|**2008**|[[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19015104|**19015104**]]|
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 ===== Neurosynth map for the term:   =====
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 {{teaching:image1_emotion.png?624x613|}}
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 ===== Brain region chosen for the term =====
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 Brain region “substantia niagra”{{teaching:image2_emotion.png?624x628|}}
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 ===== Other Neurosynth terms associated with this brain region: =====
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 MNI Coordinates: -11, -22, -9
 {{teaching:image3_emotion.png?624x422|}}
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+----
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 ====== Questions posed by the class ======
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 ===== Background Vocabulary  =====
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 ==== Q:  What is the neocortex? And what does phylogenetics matter to it? ====
 WelcomeSoda: “The neocortex, also called the neopallium and isocortex, is the part of the [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalian_brain|mammalian brain]] involved in higher-order brain functions such as [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense|sensory perception]], cognition, generation of [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_cortex|motor commands]], [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_visualization_ability|spatial reasoning]] and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language|language]].” The neocortex is the newest part of the cerebral cortex to evolve. A higher neocortex ratio is thought to correlate with social variables. Humans have a large neocortex:rest of the brain ratio. The neocortex is smooth in smaller and less cognitively advanced animals but has deep grooves and ridges in larger mammals such as humans to allow greater surface area.
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 ==== Q:  Can someone explain figure 12.2 in the article? ====
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 This experiment, specifically part 2, demonstrates that behavioral loss aversion may correlate with a physiological arousal measure. Furthermore, part 2 also indicate that individuals who are the most successful at reducing their degree of loss aversion by taking a different perspective had a corresponding reduction in the physiological arousal response to loss outcomes (Sokol-Hessner et al., 2009). The second experiment is a follow-up fMRI study. Researchers found that implementing this perspective shift technique reduced amygdala activation to losses, and led to an overall increase in BOLD responses in the striatum, vmPFC and dlPFC. Therefore, the magnitude of the amygdala BOLD response also correlates with loss aversion. (Sokol-Hessner, Camerer, & Phelps, 2012). Results from both experiments fit together with another study demonstrating that patients with amygdala damage are less loss averse overall (Martino, Camerer, & Adolphs, 2010).
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 ==== Q:  Can someone re-explain reverse inference and give an example? ====
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 in Focus. Philosophy Compass, 12(7), e12427. [[https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12427|https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12427]]
-==== Q:  In a //simplified// definition, what is future antedonia? ====
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+==== Q:  In a simplified definition, what is future anhedonia? ====
 ExactTulip:
-  * “An affective forecasting error that we call future [[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/anhedonia|//anhedonia//]], which is the belief that hedonic states will be less intense in the future than in the present” (Kassam, Gilbert, Boston, & Wilson, 2008).
+  * “An affective forecasting error that we call future [[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/anhedonia|anhedonia]], which is the belief that hedonic states will be less intense in the future than in the present” (Kassam, Gilbert, Boston, & Wilson, 2008).
   * “These studies suggest that one reason why people prefer to enjoy benefits in the present and pay costs in the future is that they do not realize how they will feel when those costs and benefits are actually experienced” (Kassam, Gilbert, Boston, & Wilson, 2008)”
   * In relation to this definition, a hedonic state is considered to be when someone experiences happiness or pleasure upon exposure to a certain stimulus. When using this definition to define future anhedonia, it describes why a person might make a decision to choose a pleasurable activity such as binge watching TV, impulsive purchases, etc. despite having potential consequences for those choices in the future.
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 Kassam, K. S., Gilbert, D. T., Boston, A., & Wilson, T. D. (2008). Future anhedonia and time discounting. //Journal of Experimental Social Psychology//, //44//(6), 1533–1537. [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.07.008|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.07.008]]
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 ===== Affective Neuroscience =====
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 ==== Q:  What do affective neuroscientists study?  ====
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 What is Neuroscience? (n.d.). Retrieved February 19, 2019, from [[https://www.psychologycareercenter.org/what-is-neuroscience.html|https://www.psychologycareercenter.org/what-is-neuroscience.html]]
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 ==== Q:  In the emotion portion of the article he references the term “affect” very briefly but says the definition is beyond the scope of the paper, what is a true example of affect? ====
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 Hamilton, J. L., Burke, T. A., Stange, J. P., Kleiman, E. M., Rubenstein, L. M., Scopelliti, K. A., … Alloy, L. B. (2017). Trait Affect, Emotion Regulation, and the Generation of Negative and Positive Interpersonal Events. //Behavior Therapy//, //48//(4), 435–447. [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.01.006|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.01.006]]
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 ==== Q:  What is incidental affect? ====
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 Västfjäll, D., Slovic, P., Burns, W. J., Erlandsson, A., Koppel, L., Asutay, E., & Tinghög, G. (2016). The Arithmetic of Emotion: Integration of Incidental and Integral Affect in Judgments and Decisions. //Frontiers in psychology//, //7//, 325. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00325
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 ===== Neuroscience Methods =====
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 ==== Q:  What is the Balloon Analog Risk Task (BART)? And, how does it work? ====
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 {{teaching:image4_emotion.png?624x398|}}
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 ==== Q:  What is the basis behind choice-blindness? ====
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 Hall, L., Johansson, P., Tärning, B., Sikström, S., & Deutgen, T. (2010). Magic at the marketplace: Choice blindness for the taste of jam and the smell of tea. //Cognition//, //117//(1), 54–61. [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.06.010|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.06.010]]
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 ==== Q:  What does it mean to be “risk-seeking in the loss domain and risk-averse in the gain domain”? ====
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 Zhang, X., Liu, Y., Chen, X., Shang, X., & Liu, Y. (2017). Decisions for Others Are Less Risk-Averse in the Gain Frame and Less Risk-Seeking in the Loss Frame Than Decisions for the Self. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. [[https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01601|https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01601]]
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 ==== Q:  Does stress from test taking have the same effect on you as the stress that would occur during the Cold-Pressor Task? ====
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 von Baeyer, C. L., Piira, T., Chambers, C. T., Trapanotto, M., & Zeltzer, L. K. (2005). Guidelines for the cold pressor task as an experimental pain stimulus for use with children. //The Journal of Pain: Official Journal of the American Pain Society//, //6//(4), 218–227. [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2005.01.349|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2005.01.349]]
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 ===== Thought Systems: System 1 & 2  =====
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 ==== Q:  Do you think decisions based on emotional responses more often occur in system 1 or system 2? ====
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 (“What Is ‘System 1’ Thinking—and Why Do You Need to Learn It?,” 2017, p. 1)
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 ==== Q:  Would the Limbic system be an important part of system 2 because it has more of a “fight or flight” response?  ====
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 The Fight or Flight Response: Understanding and Identifying Stress Indicators. (2017, June 16). Retrieved February 19, 2019, from https://www.asi-mag.com/fight-flight-response-understanding-identifying-stress-indicators
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 ==== Q:  “When surveying this research today, it is hard to imagine how a two-system approach could capture the breadth of the interaction of emotion and decisions. Why then has the two-system approach continued to dominate discourse in many circles?” Our readings seemingly contradict on two-system thought. Why? ====
 VideoSport: Our reading seems to contradict it because it’s not true.  It shows time and time again that in reality the systems are connected and continually interact.  The following is largely speculative, I’m going to answer and then look for sources. From a sociological perspective you can look at why society might adopt and perpetuate this point of view (I realize that this is a psych class but it’s my other major and I think the interaction of the two subjects is interesting and informative!).  I once read somewhere, and I need to find a source, that the conception of this perspective that intelligence and good decision-making etc. are incompatible and distinct from emotion, including compassion, was developed primarily in Europe while they were colonizing and committing genocide all over the globe, and while the concept of race was also being created.  Kant and Freud ,alive during the 1700s-1800s and 1800s-early 1900s respectively, were noted in the article for their contributions to the idea of reason and emotion being distinct. The contribution of their theories lines up with timelines of imperialism and race issues (Bunjun & Gracias, 2008). Arguably, one could say that the reason rationality was conceptualized as so distinct from emotion could be to justify the systemic violence that was being committed.  I also think that it is important to consider the gendered implications of this. Men are largely put in charge in our society. They are most of our political leaders, most of our CEOs, largely considered the head of the household, although that is all slowly changing. Men are considered rational and logical, they are seen as the decision-makers. Women are considered emotional and this is often used as justification for why they should not be in positions of power.  I think that this reading demonstrates that, in fact, we are all impacted by emotion in decision-making, albeit sometimes in different ways.
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 ===== Emotions and Decision Making =====
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 ==== Q:  An example of each of the two primary ways that emotion can influence decision? (Page 220 last paragraph) ====
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   - Second way emotions can influence decisions from the article: “The choice of choice outcomes elicit an emotional reaction, and this discrete reaction modulates the value calculation.”  An example used in the article was that if one of the choice options in a set elicits a fear reaction, that reaction might contribute to a negative evaluation of the choice, and that option would be avoided. So, physical measures of arousal and future directed-affect are the main ideas for the second way an emotion can influence decisions.
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 ==== Q:  If emotions are flexible for different situations, what is the impact of the lack of flexible emotions? ====
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 Waugh, C. E., Thompson, R. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2011). Flexible Emotional Responsiveness in Trait Resilience. //Emotion (Washington, D.C.)//, //11//(5), 1059–1067. [[https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021786|https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021786]]
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 ===== Types of Stress =====
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 ==== Q:  How is acute stress different than normal stress? Are there other types of stress? ====
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 (Acute vs. chronic stress – CESH / CSHS. (n.d.). Retrieved February 19, 2019, from [[https://humanstress.ca/stress/understand-your-stress/acute-vs-chronic-stress/|https://humanstress.ca/stress/understand-your-stress/acute-vs-chronic-stress/]])
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 ===== Participant Variables (Subject Variables) =====
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 ==== Q:  Even though the ‘mood induction’ is assessed with surveys, can it be trusted since there is wide variation in how each participant processes and reacts to each emotion? ====
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 DivideSegment: It is important to keep in mind when assessing surveys that participant bias may have occurred and the variation of emotional responses.
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 ==== Q:  The article mentioned the findings of a study that found stressed participants made fewer utilitarian judgments when responding to moral dilemmas. In other words, they were less likely to choose the outcome that would result in better consequences for a greater number of people. This prompted me to think about first responders since their job is to act in stressful situations for the greater good. Is this the result of extensive training, innate personal characteristics or both? ====
 NitroMotor: I was a volunteer firefighter in high school so this is mostly based on personal experience. Most first responders (and military personnel) share some innate characteristics such as the urge to run towards a potentially dangerous scene and the need to help others. This coupled with extensive training helps first responders make utilitarian judgements on the fly. The training helps responders process information from the scene much more efficiently since they are trained what to expect and how to react. It also helps the first responders become desensitized to disasters so that they can make less emotional and more logical decisions. All first responders are trained on how to handle stress and make the best possible decisions based on the situation. First responders also choose to be a part of the disaster-response-community and know what they are signing up for. They are more mentally prepared to handle stressful situations everyday in every setting, unlike bystanders that may suddenly find themselves in the midst of one.
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 ===== Gender Differences =====
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 ==== Q:  On page 222, the author mentions that men tend to make more impulsive and riskier decisions when under stress compared to women. What is the biological basis for this, if there is one at all? ====
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 VideoSport: This could be connected to the idea of women as nurturers.  In situations of stress the may be more likely to be defensive and protective because of “the tending instant” in which they want to protect those around them (Taylor, 2003).  Hormonal responses to stress differ between men and women and differ in women depending on the hormonal stage they are in of their cycle (Goldstein, Jerram, Abbs, Whitfield-Gabrieli, & Makris, 2010).
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 ===== Implications for Health and Clinical Disorders =====
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 ==== Q:  In the article it is stated that “stress has been shown to impact dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area and the striatum.” What exactly is the effect of these dopaminergic neurons in these brain regions? ====
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 (Lammel, Lim, & Malenka, 2014)
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 ==== Q:  According to the study, during a stress induced moment glucocorticoid is released. Is there a dysfunction or problem that stops the glucocorticoid not being released which can make people fearless or have no reaction to stress? ====
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 ~Optiontemple (“Addison’s disease - Symptoms and causes,” n.d.)
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 ==== Q:  Could administering propranolol, aβ-adrenergic blocker that limits the physiological response to stress, help those with binge-eating disorders? ====
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 [[https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093610|https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093610]]
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 ==== Q:  Do studies on patients with PTSD demonstrate that the same/similar brain areas are affected as the areas that are affected by stress in decision-making? ====
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   * “Levels of PTSD symptoms were not associated with global performance in police recruits or paramedics. However, these measures assessed specific competencies on highly learned tasks. They perhaps do not reflect the influence of PTSD on more complex clinical decision-making. An unexpected finding related to PTSD and professional judgment occurred in the child protection worker study.”
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 ==== Q:  What is a common cause of damage to the orbitofrontal cortex? ====
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 Torregrossa, M. M., Quinn, J. J., & Taylor, J. R. (2008). Impulsivity, Compulsivity, and Habit: The Role of Orbitofrontal Cortex Revisited. //Biological Psychiatry//, //63//(3), 253–255. [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.11.014|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.11.014]]
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 ==== Q:  “When there is a highly emotional and arousing event, the amygdala modulates hippocampal storage processes to help ensure that the memory is retained.” This seemingly contradicts memory repression. Is there a consensus in the scientific community about this? ====
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 According to these studies, the amygdala participates in affectively influenced memory.    Memory storage is influenced by the activation of b-adrenergic systems and the amygdala. In the first experiment, participants were exposed to either an emotionally neutral story or a more emotionally arousing story, to examine the effect of the b-blocker propranolol, or a placebo, on long-term memory each. Also, each story consisted of 12 slides and was accompanied by a narration. For the emotional arousing story, the placebo controls showed enhanced memory. Conversely, propranolol selectively impaired memory for the emotionally arousing section. Although, it did not impair memory for the neutral story or the emotionally arousing story, specifically its initial and final portions. The drug effect could not be attributed to the subjects’ emotional reactions to the stories. These results suggest that memory storage by emotional arousal depends upon activation of b-adrenergic receptors (McGaugh, Cahill, & Roozendaal, 1996). The second experiment examined the effects on b-blockers on enhanced memory by physically induced arousal, for example increased muscle tension. Findings suggest the arousal did not enhance retention in elderly subjects who were taking b-blockers (Nielson & Jensen, 1994). The third experiment followed the same general procedures. Thus, its result indicate that emotional arousal did not enhance long-term memory for participants with bilateral degenerative lesions of the amygdala (Cahill et al., 1994). As a result, the findings from these three experiments provide strong evidence that the amygdala, especially the basolateral nucleus, plays a central role modulating long-term memory storage of emotionally arousing experiences.
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 ===== Marketing Implications =====
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-==== Q:  would a commercial that uses emotion or reason be more effective in convincing consumers to buy a product? ====
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+==== Q:  Would a commercial that uses emotion or reason be more effective in convincing consumers to buy a product? ====
 DecimalSponsor: Yes, studies have concluded that effectively inducing emotion in the audience of a commercial is a great way at generating extra revenue. According to NeuroScienceMarketing, commercials that are purely emotional perform about twice as well as the commercials that are purely rational. This indicates that people like to feel the commercial and what is being advertised as opposed to just seeing its practicality on the screen.
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 Emotion. Retrieved February 19, 2019, from [[https://medium.com/@FlorentGeerts/research-shows-the-most-effective-advertising-focuses-on-emotion-6b442b0d5572|https://medium.com/@FlorentGeerts/research-shows-the-most-effective-advertising-focuses-on-emotion-6b442b0d5572]]
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 ===== Cognitive Research =====
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 ==== Q:  Has there been research on how individuals with XYY chromosomes amygdala’s are affected with regards to hippocampus function and memory? ====
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 Ross, J. L., Zeger, M. P., Kushner, H., Zinn, A. R., & Roeltgen, D. P. (2009). An extra X or Y chromosome: Contrasting the cognitive and motor phenotypes in childhood in boys with 47,XYY syndrome or 47,XXY Klinefelter syndrome. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 15(4), 309-317. doi:10.1002/ddrr.85
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 ===== Ethical Considerations   =====
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 ==== Q:  What are some controversial/unethical methods of mood induction? ====
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 Cognition and Emotion, 61-81. doi:10.1002/0470013494.ch4
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 ==== Q:  Is changing people’s stress levels to change their reaction ethical? ====
 MileImport: This is a difficult question to answer given the wide range of stress levels that a study can induce.  However, a simplified answer from the Journal of Ethics states that as long as the stress that is induced results in mild, acute stress, that the body’s reaction is actually deemed beneficial.  There is an increase in performance, primarily involving working-memory and spatial abilities. However, the consensus from the scientific community is that any induction of chronic stress, or even the possibility of doing so, is deemed unethical given the significant data that shows the negative consequences of long-term stress.
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 ====== Bibliography ======
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 Acute vs. chronic stress – CESH / CSHS. (n.d.). Retrieved February 19, 2019, from https://humanstress.ca/stress/understand-your-stress/acute-vs-chronic-stress/
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 Wicker, B., Fonlupt, P., Hubert, B., Tardif, C., Gepner, B., & Deruelle, C. (2008). Abnormal cerebral effective connectivity during explicit emotional processing in adults with autism spectrum disorder. //Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience//, //3//(2), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsn007
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+----
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+=== Date of summary document ===
+-02-18