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 ====== Topic: Executive Function ====== ====== Topic: Executive Function ======
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 Cognitive abilities and limitations that affect decision making.  Cognitive abilities and limitations that affect decision making. 
  
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 ====== Article Discussed ====== ====== Article Discussed ======
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 Rabinovici, G. D., Stephens, M. L., & Possin, K. L. (2015). Executive Dysfunction. //Continuum : Lifelong Learning in Neurology//, //21//(3 Behavioral Neurology and Neuropsychiatry), 646–659. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.CON.0000466658.05156.54 Rabinovici, G. D., Stephens, M. L., & Possin, K. L. (2015). Executive Dysfunction. //Continuum : Lifelong Learning in Neurology//, //21//(3 Behavioral Neurology and Neuropsychiatry), 646–659. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.CON.0000466658.05156.54
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 ====== Brief Summary ====== ====== Brief Summary ======
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 This article and book discussion give insight to the role that executive function has in cognitive functioning, as well as complications of disorders pertaining to executive function. The article uses executive function as another way to describe the process and combination of cognitive processes necessary for planning and organization, while the book readings look at the process of “mental shotgunning”, and methods used in assessing competence of others. This article and book discussion give insight to the role that executive function has in cognitive functioning, as well as complications of disorders pertaining to executive function. The article uses executive function as another way to describe the process and combination of cognitive processes necessary for planning and organization, while the book readings look at the process of “mental shotgunning”, and methods used in assessing competence of others.
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 The concept of “mental shotgunning”was discussed by the class and was determined to be a term to define the event where more information is processed by the brain than actually necessary in regards to a specific problem or stimulus, and thus resulting in the continuation or prevalence of other problems while simultaneously attempting to solve the intended problem at hand. The term itself can be explained by how a shotgun spreads small amounts of munition in a scattered format, similarly to how executive functions are scattered in regards to how they are solved, with many specialized processes all having a role. The assessment of competence was concluded to be attributed to many different factors, and in itself is an example of mental shotgunning. Factors that contribute to determine competence can vary in how they are determined, with many different factors and environmental aspects playing a role. One notable example was the perception of competence in political candidates, and what qualities were deemed to assume a candidates competence, such as education, background, social skills, as well as subliminal factors such as body language and appearance. The concept of “mental shotgunning”was discussed by the class and was determined to be a term to define the event where more information is processed by the brain than actually necessary in regards to a specific problem or stimulus, and thus resulting in the continuation or prevalence of other problems while simultaneously attempting to solve the intended problem at hand. The term itself can be explained by how a shotgun spreads small amounts of munition in a scattered format, similarly to how executive functions are scattered in regards to how they are solved, with many specialized processes all having a role. The assessment of competence was concluded to be attributed to many different factors, and in itself is an example of mental shotgunning. Factors that contribute to determine competence can vary in how they are determined, with many different factors and environmental aspects playing a role. One notable example was the perception of competence in political candidates, and what qualities were deemed to assume a candidates competence, such as education, background, social skills, as well as subliminal factors such as body language and appearance.
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 ====== Cognitive Process Neuroimaging Analysis ====== ====== Cognitive Process Neuroimaging Analysis ======
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 Neurosynth terms: executive function and memory. Neurosynth terms: executive function and memory.
  
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 ===== Neurosynth map for the terms ===== ===== Neurosynth map for the terms =====
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 {{teaching:image1_executive.png?537x830}} {{teaching:image1_executive.png?537x830}}
  
 {{teaching:image2_executive.png?510x382}} {{teaching:image2_executive.png?510x382}}
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 ====== Questions posed by the class ====== ====== Questions posed by the class ======
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 ===== Neural processes related to executive function ===== ===== Neural processes related to executive function =====
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 ==== Q:  What is synaptogenesis? ==== ==== Q:  What is synaptogenesis? ====
  
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 > Jin, Y. (2005). Synaptogenesis. //WormBook//. [[https://doi.org/10.1895/wormbook.1.44.1|https://doi.org/10.1895/wormbook.1.44.1]] > Jin, Y. (2005). Synaptogenesis. //WormBook//. [[https://doi.org/10.1895/wormbook.1.44.1|https://doi.org/10.1895/wormbook.1.44.1]]
  
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 ==== Q:  What do the noradrenergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic neurotransmitter systems do? ==== ==== Q:  What do the noradrenergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic neurotransmitter systems do? ====
  
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 Wong, Christina G., and Michael C. Stevens. “The Effects of Stimulant Medication on Working Memory Functional Connectivity in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.” //Biological Psychiatry// 71, no. 5 (March 1, 2012): 458–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.11.011. Wong, Christina G., and Michael C. Stevens. “The Effects of Stimulant Medication on Working Memory Functional Connectivity in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.” //Biological Psychiatry// 71, no. 5 (March 1, 2012): 458–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.11.011.
  
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 ==== Q:  What is the salience network? ==== ==== Q:  What is the salience network? ====
  
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 (Salience network. (2019). In //Wikipedia//. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salience_network&oldid=883558768) (Salience network. (2019). In //Wikipedia//. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salience_network&oldid=883558768)
  
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 ===== How is executive function different from cognition in general? ===== ===== How is executive function different from cognition in general? =====
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 ==== Q:  Are working memory, inhibition, set shifting, and fluency all part of System 2? ==== ==== Q:  Are working memory, inhibition, set shifting, and fluency all part of System 2? ====
  
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 **AmbientBenefit:** On Wikipedia it lists “Brain Functions” as arousal, attention, consciousness, decision making, executive functions, natural language, learning, memory, motor coordination, perception, planning, problem solving, and thought - although this doesn't seem like a very cohesive list. (“Executive functions,” 2019) I found a different article about “non-executive cognitive abilities in individuals with PKU” (phenylketonuria) that lists information processing speed, fine motor control, and perception and visual-spatial abilities, language, and learning/memory (although they reference the last one as linked to executive function) as functions that are non-executive. (Janzen & Nguyen, 2010). Overall, I’m not sure that there is actually is a widely recognized list of non-executive function. **AmbientBenefit:** On Wikipedia it lists “Brain Functions” as arousal, attention, consciousness, decision making, executive functions, natural language, learning, memory, motor coordination, perception, planning, problem solving, and thought - although this doesn't seem like a very cohesive list. (“Executive functions,” 2019) I found a different article about “non-executive cognitive abilities in individuals with PKU” (phenylketonuria) that lists information processing speed, fine motor control, and perception and visual-spatial abilities, language, and learning/memory (although they reference the last one as linked to executive function) as functions that are non-executive. (Janzen & Nguyen, 2010). Overall, I’m not sure that there is actually is a widely recognized list of non-executive function.
  
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 ==== Q:  What kinds of questions would be asked to the individual during a cognitive inhibition task “go/no go task”? And does this task accurately measure a lack of inhibition? ==== ==== Q:  What kinds of questions would be asked to the individual during a cognitive inhibition task “go/no go task”? And does this task accurately measure a lack of inhibition? ====
  
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 [[https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12447|https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12447]] [[https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12447|https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12447]]
  
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 ==== Q:  What is the Design Fluency test? And, how does it work? ==== ==== Q:  What is the Design Fluency test? And, how does it work? ====
  
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 > Ruff, R. (2011). Design Fluency Test. In J. S. Kreutzer, J. DeLuca, & B. Caplan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology (pp. 821–822). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1426 > Ruff, R. (2011). Design Fluency Test. In J. S. Kreutzer, J. DeLuca, & B. Caplan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology (pp. 821–822). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1426
  
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 ==== Q:  Do those with troubles in fluency have trouble with conversation? ==== ==== Q:  Do those with troubles in fluency have trouble with conversation? ====
  
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 Fluency Disorder | Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library. (n.d.). Retrieved March 26, 2019, from [[https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/otolaryngology/fluency_disorder_134,237|https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/otolaryngology/fluency_disorder_134,237]] Fluency Disorder | Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library. (n.d.). Retrieved March 26, 2019, from [[https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/otolaryngology/fluency_disorder_134,237|https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/otolaryngology/fluency_disorder_134,237]]
  
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 ==== Q:  How does set shifting coincide with working memory and response inhibition in executive functioning? ==== ==== Q:  How does set shifting coincide with working memory and response inhibition in executive functioning? ====
  
 **AmbientBenefit:** The article defines set shifting as “the ability to modify attention and behavior in response to changing circumstances and demands.” The article pretty much answers this question, saying that set shifting “inherently relies on working memory (in order to keep in mind the current goals) and response inhibition (in order to ignore a previously relevant goal or focus of attention).” For more clarification, this is because working memory (as defined by the article) allows us to temporarily process/store/manipulate information in our mind, while response inhibition is the ability to hold back a previously learned response to something. (Rabinovici, Stephens, & Possin, 2015) **AmbientBenefit:** The article defines set shifting as “the ability to modify attention and behavior in response to changing circumstances and demands.” The article pretty much answers this question, saying that set shifting “inherently relies on working memory (in order to keep in mind the current goals) and response inhibition (in order to ignore a previously relevant goal or focus of attention).” For more clarification, this is because working memory (as defined by the article) allows us to temporarily process/store/manipulate information in our mind, while response inhibition is the ability to hold back a previously learned response to something. (Rabinovici, Stephens, & Possin, 2015)
  
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 ===== Working memory ===== ===== Working memory =====
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 ==== Q:  The article mentions that working memory is a limited capacity system. Is the limit the same for all humans? ==== ==== Q:  The article mentions that working memory is a limited capacity system. Is the limit the same for all humans? ====
  
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 Jarrold, C., & Towse, J. N. (2006). Individual differences in working memory. //Neuroscience//, //139//(1), 39–50. [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.07.002|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.07.002]] Jarrold, C., & Towse, J. N. (2006). Individual differences in working memory. //Neuroscience//, //139//(1), 39–50. [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.07.002|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.07.002]]
  
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 ==== Q:  In the article it states that working memory is “limited capacity system”, so how limited is our working memory, and is there a time period for the duration of when we engage working memory? ==== ==== Q:  In the article it states that working memory is “limited capacity system”, so how limited is our working memory, and is there a time period for the duration of when we engage working memory? ====
  
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 [[https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12447|https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12447]] [[https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12447|https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12447]]
  
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 ==== Q:  Are there treatments for people with working memory deficits? ==== ==== Q:  Are there treatments for people with working memory deficits? ====
  
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 Wong and Stevens, “The Effects of Stimulant Medication on Working Memory Functional Connectivity in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.” Wong and Stevens, “The Effects of Stimulant Medication on Working Memory Functional Connectivity in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.”
  
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 =====  Individual differences ===== =====  Individual differences =====
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 ==== Q:  Do people with a stronger drive and motivation to succeed have more executive function capabilities? Do you think people can have more “executive function” in different areas of their life? For example: in a school setting for studying for an exam or maybe in their hobby like perfecting a dance move? ==== ==== Q:  Do people with a stronger drive and motivation to succeed have more executive function capabilities? Do you think people can have more “executive function” in different areas of their life? For example: in a school setting for studying for an exam or maybe in their hobby like perfecting a dance move? ====
  
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 Johnson, S. B., Blum, R. W., & Giedd, J. N. (2009). Adolescent Maturity and the Brain: The Promise and Pitfalls of Neuroscience Research in Adolescent Health Policy. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(3), 216-221. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.05.016- Johnson, S. B., Blum, R. W., & Giedd, J. N. (2009). Adolescent Maturity and the Brain: The Promise and Pitfalls of Neuroscience Research in Adolescent Health Policy. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(3), 216-221. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.05.016-
  
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 ===== Brain injury and diseases ===== ===== Brain injury and diseases =====
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 ==== Q:  What is a “white matter injury” and how does it affect executive functions? ==== ==== Q:  What is a “white matter injury” and how does it affect executive functions? ====
  
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 (The Relationship Between Executive Function and Processing Speed – Brainy Behavior. (n.d.). Retrieved March 26, 2019, from http://www.brainybehavior.com/blog/2009/07/executive-function-processing-speed/) (The Relationship Between Executive Function and Processing Speed – Brainy Behavior. (n.d.). Retrieved March 26, 2019, from http://www.brainybehavior.com/blog/2009/07/executive-function-processing-speed/)
  
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 ==== Q:  Is there an area of the brain that would have to be injured for executive functions to cease, or is the whole brain involved? ==== ==== Q:  Is there an area of the brain that would have to be injured for executive functions to cease, or is the whole brain involved? ====
  
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 Levine, B., Schweizer, T. A., O’Connor, C., Turner, G., Gillingham, S., Stuss, D. T., … Robertson, I. H. (2011). Rehabilitation of Executive Functioning in Patients with Frontal Lobe Brain Damage with Goal Management Training. //Frontiers in Human Neuroscience//, //5//. [[https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2011.00009|https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2011.00009]] Levine, B., Schweizer, T. A., O’Connor, C., Turner, G., Gillingham, S., Stuss, D. T., … Robertson, I. H. (2011). Rehabilitation of Executive Functioning in Patients with Frontal Lobe Brain Damage with Goal Management Training. //Frontiers in Human Neuroscience//, //5//. [[https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2011.00009|https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2011.00009]]
  
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 ==== Q:  What is the most commonly injured brain region that leads to executive dysfunction? ==== ==== Q:  What is the most commonly injured brain region that leads to executive dysfunction? ====
  
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 MEDIAmaker. (n.d.). 7 signs of executive dysfunction after brain injury. Retrieved March 26, 2019, from https://www.headway.org.uk/news/national-news/7-signs-of-executive-dysfunction-after-brain-injury/ MEDIAmaker. (n.d.). 7 signs of executive dysfunction after brain injury. Retrieved March 26, 2019, from https://www.headway.org.uk/news/national-news/7-signs-of-executive-dysfunction-after-brain-injury/
  
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 ==== Q:  In the many conditions listed that are associated with executive dysfunction (such as ADHD or congestive heart failure) would you actually be able to see the damage (to white matter connections, regions associated with executive dysfunction, or neurotransmitter systems) in the brain that the article says causes executive dysfunction? ==== ==== Q:  In the many conditions listed that are associated with executive dysfunction (such as ADHD or congestive heart failure) would you actually be able to see the damage (to white matter connections, regions associated with executive dysfunction, or neurotransmitter systems) in the brain that the article says causes executive dysfunction? ====
  
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 ==== Q:  What physical/bodily symptoms are prevalent in patients with cognitive disorders? Do these bodily symptoms vary between disorders such as Alzheimer’s and ADHD, or are they all relatively similar?  ==== ==== Q:  What physical/bodily symptoms are prevalent in patients with cognitive disorders? Do these bodily symptoms vary between disorders such as Alzheimer’s and ADHD, or are they all relatively similar?  ====
  
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 Hugo, J., & Ganguli, M. (2014). Dementia and Cognitive Impairment: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 30(3), 421–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2014.04.001 Hugo, J., & Ganguli, M. (2014). Dementia and Cognitive Impairment: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 30(3), 421–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2014.04.001
  
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 ==== Q:  What diseases or disorders may affect inhibition? ==== ==== Q:  What diseases or disorders may affect inhibition? ====
  
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 https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-2-4  https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-2-4 
  
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 ==== Q:  What is the average annual cost of an individually tailored dysexecutive disorder treatment? ==== ==== Q:  What is the average annual cost of an individually tailored dysexecutive disorder treatment? ====
  
 **DivideSegment**: Due to the necessity of individually tailored treatment there is no way to determine the average cost, however specific to Alzheimer's 67% of Medicaid and Medicare spending goes towards this disease, it is the most expensive disease for senior citizens. It costs on average $57,000 per person per year according to the [[http://act.alz.org/site/DocServer/2012_Costs_Fact_Sheet_version_2.pdf?docID=7161|Alzheimer’s Association 2018 Fact Sheet.]] Parkinson’s disease averaged around $5,000 per year and ADHD around $2,500 per person per year. As you can see there is a great variety in the cost of individual treatments. **DivideSegment**: Due to the necessity of individually tailored treatment there is no way to determine the average cost, however specific to Alzheimer's 67% of Medicaid and Medicare spending goes towards this disease, it is the most expensive disease for senior citizens. It costs on average $57,000 per person per year according to the [[http://act.alz.org/site/DocServer/2012_Costs_Fact_Sheet_version_2.pdf?docID=7161|Alzheimer’s Association 2018 Fact Sheet.]] Parkinson’s disease averaged around $5,000 per year and ADHD around $2,500 per person per year. As you can see there is a great variety in the cost of individual treatments.
  
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 ==== Q:  Can trauma lead to inhibition deficits? If so, what specifically are the reasons for this? ==== ==== Q:  Can trauma lead to inhibition deficits? If so, what specifically are the reasons for this? ====
  
 **MileImport:** The first example of trauma that came to mind regarding inhibition deficits was Phineas Gage, who had a brain lesion in his left frontal lobe that caused profound impacts to his personality. His colleagues and family reported extensive changes to his ability to inhibit emotion, language, addiction, etc., all as a direct result of the injury. **MileImport:** The first example of trauma that came to mind regarding inhibition deficits was Phineas Gage, who had a brain lesion in his left frontal lobe that caused profound impacts to his personality. His colleagues and family reported extensive changes to his ability to inhibit emotion, language, addiction, etc., all as a direct result of the injury.
  
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 ==== Q:  Patients can have Alzheimer’s without episodic memory loss, and just executive function problems? ==== ==== Q:  Patients can have Alzheimer’s without episodic memory loss, and just executive function problems? ====
  
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   * [[https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006171|https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006171]]This article suggests that episodic memory loss is the first key symptom that could potentially lead to a dementia and/or alzheimer’s diagnosis. Therefore considering that one of the earliest symptoms is considered to be episodic memory loss, patients experiencing this symptom will likely further digress into experiencing a loss in executive function as the disease progresses, especially without treatment.   * [[https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006171|https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006171]]This article suggests that episodic memory loss is the first key symptom that could potentially lead to a dementia and/or alzheimer’s diagnosis. Therefore considering that one of the earliest symptoms is considered to be episodic memory loss, patients experiencing this symptom will likely further digress into experiencing a loss in executive function as the disease progresses, especially without treatment.
  
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 ==== Q:  Why is dopamine replacement therapy better for patients with Parkinsons disease over those with Alzheimer’s? ==== ==== Q:  Why is dopamine replacement therapy better for patients with Parkinsons disease over those with Alzheimer’s? ====
  
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 (“Parkinson’s disease,” n.d.) (Martorana & Koch, 2014) (“Parkinson’s disease,” n.d.) (Martorana & Koch, 2014)
  
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 ===== Heredity and evolution ===== ===== Heredity and evolution =====
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 ==== Q:  Is executive function hereditary? ==== ==== Q:  Is executive function hereditary? ====
  
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 > Hu, X., Ma, X., Zhu, W., Fu, Y., Zhou, Y., Meng, H., … Li, T. (2014). [Effect of hereditary and environmental factors on the executive function of twin children]. //Nan Fang Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao = Journal of Southern Medical University//, //34//(9), 1291–1294. > Hu, X., Ma, X., Zhu, W., Fu, Y., Zhou, Y., Meng, H., … Li, T. (2014). [Effect of hereditary and environmental factors on the executive function of twin children]. //Nan Fang Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao = Journal of Southern Medical University//, //34//(9), 1291–1294.
  
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 ==== Q:  Are we the only species with executive function? If so, which other species come closest when thinking about its components of working memory, inhibition, set shifting, and fluency? ==== ==== Q:  Are we the only species with executive function? If so, which other species come closest when thinking about its components of working memory, inhibition, set shifting, and fluency? ====
  
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 [[https://doi.org/10.1007/s002210000407|https://doi.org/10.1007/s002210000407]] [[https://doi.org/10.1007/s002210000407|https://doi.org/10.1007/s002210000407]]
  
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 ===== Research methods and ethics ===== ===== Research methods and ethics =====
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 ==== Q:  In Case 4-1 on page 647, how do researchers go about finding people for this cases like these in research papers? Do researchers look for specific people or are the case studies performed for the purpose of supporting the research? ==== ==== Q:  In Case 4-1 on page 647, how do researchers go about finding people for this cases like these in research papers? Do researchers look for specific people or are the case studies performed for the purpose of supporting the research? ====
  
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 13 Ways to Recruit Study Participants Online  » Health Psych Tam. (2017, June 02). Retrieved from https://healthpsychtam.com/2017/06/02/recruitment/ 13 Ways to Recruit Study Participants Online  » Health Psych Tam. (2017, June 02). Retrieved from https://healthpsychtam.com/2017/06/02/recruitment/
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 ====== Bibliography ====== ====== Bibliography ======
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 Sargeant J. (2012). Qualitative Research Part II: Participants, Analysis, and Quality Assurance. Journal of graduate medical education, 4(1), 1–3. doi:10.4300/JGME-D-11-00307.1 Sargeant J. (2012). Qualitative Research Part II: Participants, Analysis, and Quality Assurance. Journal of graduate medical education, 4(1), 1–3. doi:10.4300/JGME-D-11-00307.1
teaching/cndm/cndm_topic_executive.1566062527.txt.gz · Last modified: 2019/08/17 13:22 by anthony