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teaching:cndm:cndm_topic_gustation [2019/08/16 16:09] – anthonyteaching:cndm:cndm_topic_gustation [2019/09/30 13:18] (current) – ↷ Links adapted because of a move operation 66.249.65.209
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 +[[teaching:cndm:cndm_guides|Back to topics page]]
  
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 Some of the questions that remain unanswered in this summary include: What is the function of the IP3-reduced transient receptor channel? What are the major similarities and differences between taste codes and the way the taste signals travel? And, How do you gain or lose the different types of TRCs (taste responsive cells)? For example some people like salt more than others, or have an acquired taste for bitter things, do they have more type II TRCs, or G-protein coupled receptors? Some of the questions that remain unanswered in this summary include: What is the function of the IP3-reduced transient receptor channel? What are the major similarities and differences between taste codes and the way the taste signals travel? And, How do you gain or lose the different types of TRCs (taste responsive cells)? For example some people like salt more than others, or have an acquired taste for bitter things, do they have more type II TRCs, or G-protein coupled receptors?
  
 +\\
 +----
 +\\
 ====== Cognitive process neuroimaging analysis ====== ====== Cognitive process neuroimaging analysis ======
 +\\
  
 Neurosynth term: “taste” Neurosynth term: “taste”
  
 +\\
 ===== Top 5 Pubmed articles: ===== ===== Top 5 Pubmed articles: =====
 +\\
  
 1: Yoshida Y, Kawabata F, Kawabata Y, Nishimura S, Tabata S. Expression levels of taste-related genes in palate and tongue tip, and involvement of transient receptor potential subfamily M member 5 (TRPM5) in taste sense in chickens. Anim Sci J. 2018 Feb;89(2):441-447. doi: 10.1111/asj.12945. Epub 2017 Nov 27. PubMed PMID: 29178505. 1: Yoshida Y, Kawabata F, Kawabata Y, Nishimura S, Tabata S. Expression levels of taste-related genes in palate and tongue tip, and involvement of transient receptor potential subfamily M member 5 (TRPM5) in taste sense in chickens. Anim Sci J. 2018 Feb;89(2):441-447. doi: 10.1111/asj.12945. Epub 2017 Nov 27. PubMed PMID: 29178505.
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 5: Running CA, Craig BA, Mattes RD. Oleogustus: The Unique Taste of Fat. Chem Senses. 2015 Sep;40(7):507-16. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjv036. Epub 2015 Jul 3. PubMed PMID: 26142421. 5: Running CA, Craig BA, Mattes RD. Oleogustus: The Unique Taste of Fat. Chem Senses. 2015 Sep;40(7):507-16. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjv036. Epub 2015 Jul 3. PubMed PMID: 26142421.
  
 +\\
 ===== Top 5 Neurosynth articles: ===== ===== Top 5 Neurosynth articles: =====
 +\\
  
 de Araujo, I. E. T., Rolls, E. T., Kringelbach, M. L., McGlone, F., & Phillips, N. (2003). Taste-olfactory convergence, and the representation of the pleasantness of flavour, in the human brain. //The European Journal of Neuroscience//, //18//(7), 2059–2068. de Araujo, I. E. T., Rolls, E. T., Kringelbach, M. L., McGlone, F., & Phillips, N. (2003). Taste-olfactory convergence, and the representation of the pleasantness of flavour, in the human brain. //The European Journal of Neuroscience//, //18//(7), 2059–2068.
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 Nakamura, Y., Tokumori, K., Tanabe, H. C., Yoshiura, T., Kobayashi, K., Nakamura, Y., … Goto, T. K. (2013). Localization of the primary taste cortex by contrasting passive and attentive conditions. //Experimental Brain Research//, //227//(2), 185–197. [[https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-013-3499-z|https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-013-3499-z]] Nakamura, Y., Tokumori, K., Tanabe, H. C., Yoshiura, T., Kobayashi, K., Nakamura, Y., … Goto, T. K. (2013). Localization of the primary taste cortex by contrasting passive and attentive conditions. //Experimental Brain Research//, //227//(2), 185–197. [[https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-013-3499-z|https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-013-3499-z]]
  
 +\\
 ===== Neurosynth map for the term: ===== ===== Neurosynth map for the term: =====
 +\\
  
 {{teaching:image1_gustation.png?570x570|}} {{teaching:image1_gustation.png?570x570|}}
  
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 ===== Brain region chosen for the term ===== ===== Brain region chosen for the term =====
 +\\
  
 Brain region “left rostrodorsal insula” Brain region “left rostrodorsal insula”
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 {{teaching:image2_gustation.png?573x573|}} {{teaching:image2_gustation.png?573x573|}}
  
 +\\
 ===== Other Neurosynth terms associated with this brain region: ===== ===== Other Neurosynth terms associated with this brain region: =====
 +\\
  
 MNI Coordinates: -40, 8, -7 MNI Coordinates: -40, 8, -7
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 |[[http://neurosynth.org/analyses/terms/anterior%20insular|anterior insular]]|5.8                 |0.84                  |0.24               |0.26                        | |[[http://neurosynth.org/analyses/terms/anterior%20insular|anterior insular]]|5.8                 |0.84                  |0.24               |0.26                        |
 |[[http://neurosynth.org/analyses/terms/fear|fear]]                          |5.47                |5.47                  |0.21               |0.33                        | |[[http://neurosynth.org/analyses/terms/fear|fear]]                          |5.47                |5.47                  |0.21               |0.33                        |
 +
 +\\
 +----
 +\\
  
 ====== Questions posed by students ====== ====== Questions posed by students ======
 +\\
  
 +\\
 ===== Background vocabulary ===== ===== Background vocabulary =====
 +\\
 +
  
 ==== Q:  What does “hedonic value” mean?  ==== ==== Q:  What does “hedonic value” mean?  ====
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 “Hedonics: the study of pleasant and unpleasant sensations” [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?Bgf3TZ|(Carleton, Accolla, & Simon, 2010)]]. So, the “hedonic value” would be linked to how pleasant or unpleasant the sensation was -VideoSport “Hedonics: the study of pleasant and unpleasant sensations” [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?Bgf3TZ|(Carleton, Accolla, & Simon, 2010)]]. So, the “hedonic value” would be linked to how pleasant or unpleasant the sensation was -VideoSport
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What is gustatory? ==== ==== Q:  What is gustatory? ====
  
 SodaOxford: The gustatory is responsible for taste. SodaOxford: The gustatory is responsible for taste.
  
-> What Is the Gustatory Cortex? (with pictures). (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2019, from [[http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-gustatory-cortex.htm|http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-gustatory-cortex.htm]] +What Is the Gustatory Cortex? (with pictures). (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2019, from [[http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-gustatory-cortex.htm|http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-gustatory-cortex.htm]] 
->  +  
-> “Gustatory” is the technical word for the regular English word “taste.” It comes from the root “*geus-” which etymonline.com describes like this: “Proto-Indo-European root meaning "to taste; to choose." It forms words for "taste" in Greek and Latin, but its descendants in Germanic and Celtic mostly mean "try" or "choose."” +“Gustatory” is the technical word for the regular English word “taste.” It comes from the root “*geus-” which etymonline.com describes like this: “Proto-Indo-European root meaning "to taste; to choose." It forms words for "taste" in Greek and Latin, but its descendants in Germanic and Celtic mostly mean "try" or "choose."” 
->  +  
-> *geus- | Origin and meaning of *geus- by Online Etymology Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2019, from [[https://www.etymonline.com/word/*geus-|https://www.etymonline.com/word/*geus-]] +*geus- | Origin and meaning of *geus- by Online Etymology Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2019, from [[https://www.etymonline.com/word/*geus-|https://www.etymonline.com/word/*geus-]] 
->  +  
-> I think it is interesting that “taste” and “choice” are related concepts linguistically. +I think it is interesting that “taste” and “choice” are related concepts linguistically. 
->  +  
-> AnthonyCate+AnthonyCate
  
 +\\
 +\\
 ===== Neuroscience methods ===== ===== Neuroscience methods =====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  How is data taken in morphological and electrophysiological recordings? ==== ==== Q:  How is data taken in morphological and electrophysiological recordings? ====
  
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   * Morphological recording- Morphological Analysis (MA) can also be referred to as ‘problem solving’. It is visually recorded in a morphological overview, often called a ‘Morphological Chart’. The method was developed in the 1960s by [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky|Fritz Zwicky]], an astronomer from Switzerland. (Mulder, 2017)   * Morphological recording- Morphological Analysis (MA) can also be referred to as ‘problem solving’. It is visually recorded in a morphological overview, often called a ‘Morphological Chart’. The method was developed in the 1960s by [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky|Fritz Zwicky]], an astronomer from Switzerland. (Mulder, 2017)
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What does the Intrinsic Signal Optical Imaging technique exactly measure on the brain? ==== ==== Q:  What does the Intrinsic Signal Optical Imaging technique exactly measure on the brain? ====
  
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   * It originates from different mechanisms such as changes in the physical properties of the tissue and/or changes of fluorescence or absorption of intrinsic molecules [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?0Yljk6|(Carleton et al., 2010)]].   * It originates from different mechanisms such as changes in the physical properties of the tissue and/or changes of fluorescence or absorption of intrinsic molecules [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?0Yljk6|(Carleton et al., 2010)]].
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  If most electrophysiological recordings are performed on anesthetized animals, doesn’t this mean that if the same tastant experiments were conducted when the animals are awake that results could be different and produce a different outcome? How do researchers combat this? ==== ==== Q:  If most electrophysiological recordings are performed on anesthetized animals, doesn’t this mean that if the same tastant experiments were conducted when the animals are awake that results could be different and produce a different outcome? How do researchers combat this? ====
  
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 AnthonyCate AnthonyCate
  
 +\\
 +\\
 ===== Nervous system pathways ===== ===== Nervous system pathways =====
 +\\
  
 ==== Q:  Is gustatory processing in the periphery considered to be more or less complex in terms of evolution than gustatory processing contained within the CNS? ==== ==== Q:  Is gustatory processing in the periphery considered to be more or less complex in terms of evolution than gustatory processing contained within the CNS? ====
  
-PolarisUnique: “Therefore, it is not surprising that other oral senses modulate taste sensations and that a particular brain circuit should have evolved to assess the multisensory properties of intra-oral stimuli.” de Araujo, I. E., & Simon, S. A. (2009). The gustatory cortex and multisensory integration. //International Journal of Obesity (2005)//, //33//(Suppl 2), S34–S43. [[https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2009.70|https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2009.70]]+PolarisUnique: “Therefore, it is not surprising that other oral senses modulate taste sensations and that a particular brain circuit should have evolved to assess the multisensory properties of intra-oral stimuli.” 
  
 +de Araujo, I. E., & Simon, S. A. (2009). The gustatory cortex and multisensory integration. //International Journal of Obesity (2005)//, //33//(Suppl 2), S34–S43. [[https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2009.70|https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2009.70]]
 +
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What are the main functions of each part of the tongue - in relation to organizing and categorizing tastes? ==== ==== Q:  What are the main functions of each part of the tongue - in relation to organizing and categorizing tastes? ====
  
-WindowComrade: There are two cranial nerves responsible for taste perceptions when dealing with the tongue - the glossopharyngeal nerve at the back and the chorda tympani at the front. Taste buds are also important in interpreting taste sensations and sending signals to the brain. (Center for Smell and Taste » The tongue map you learned in school is wrong. (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2019, from [[http://cst.ufl.edu/that-neat-and-tidy-map-of-tastes-on-the-tongue-you-learned-in-school-is-all-wrong.html|http://cst.ufl.edu/that-neat-and-tidy-map-of-tastes-on-the-tongue-you-learned-in-school-is-all-wrong.html]])+WindowComrade: There are two cranial nerves responsible for taste perceptions when dealing with the tongue - the glossopharyngeal nerve at the back and the chorda tympani at the front. Taste buds are also important in interpreting taste sensations and sending signals to the brain. 
  
 +(Center for Smell and Taste » The tongue map you learned in school is wrong. (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2019, from [[http://cst.ufl.edu/that-neat-and-tidy-map-of-tastes-on-the-tongue-you-learned-in-school-is-all-wrong.html|http://cst.ufl.edu/that-neat-and-tidy-map-of-tastes-on-the-tongue-you-learned-in-school-is-all-wrong.html]])
 +
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Neurons that are labelled ‘best receptors’ can change their tastant selectivity during, or after ingestion? - what does that mean? ==== ==== Q:  Neurons that are labelled ‘best receptors’ can change their tastant selectivity during, or after ingestion? - what does that mean? ====
  
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 (Carleton, Accolla, & Simon, 2010) (Carleton, Accolla, & Simon, 2010)
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What is a synthetic and normally tasteless ligand? This is in relation to the quote from the article “For example, in mice expressing a receptor activated by a synthetic and normally tasteless ligand in bitter-responsive cells the ligand was found to induce avoidance behavior, whereas when the same receptor was expressed in sweet-responsive cells the ligand provoked acceptance behavior.” ==== ==== Q:  What is a synthetic and normally tasteless ligand? This is in relation to the quote from the article “For example, in mice expressing a receptor activated by a synthetic and normally tasteless ligand in bitter-responsive cells the ligand was found to induce avoidance behavior, whereas when the same receptor was expressed in sweet-responsive cells the ligand provoked acceptance behavior.” ====
  
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   * This supports the labeled line model, which says that individual taste receptor cells “will respond only to a single taste quality” [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?PMO5jb|(Firestein, Margolskee, & Kinnamon, 1999)]] AmbientBenefit   * This supports the labeled line model, which says that individual taste receptor cells “will respond only to a single taste quality” [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?PMO5jb|(Firestein, Margolskee, & Kinnamon, 1999)]] AmbientBenefit
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What is the thing that activates the transient receptor channel, the IP3-reduced, and what is its function? ==== ==== Q:  What is the thing that activates the transient receptor channel, the IP3-reduced, and what is its function? ====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Why doesn’t the firing rate decrease for blackcurrant juice? ==== ==== Q:  Why doesn’t the firing rate decrease for blackcurrant juice? ====
  
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 AnthonyCate AnthonyCate
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Can the separate pathways be simultaneously activated? (e.g. bitter and sweet). ==== ==== Q:  Can the separate pathways be simultaneously activated? (e.g. bitter and sweet). ====
  
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 “a single chemical species may elicit more than one taste (i.e., through the activation of multiple receptors) and may explain the characteristic “aftertaste” associated with these tastants.” [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?ltpK1M|(Yarmolinsky, Zuker, & Ryba, 2009)]] -VideoSport “a single chemical species may elicit more than one taste (i.e., through the activation of multiple receptors) and may explain the characteristic “aftertaste” associated with these tastants.” [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?ltpK1M|(Yarmolinsky, Zuker, & Ryba, 2009)]] -VideoSport
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What are the major similarities and differences between taste codes and the way the taste signals travel?  ==== ==== Q:  What are the major similarities and differences between taste codes and the way the taste signals travel?  ====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What does the article mean by the phrase “neuronal spike timing”? ==== ==== Q:  What does the article mean by the phrase “neuronal spike timing”? ====
  
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   * ShelfOpus   * ShelfOpus
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What does the article mean when it says “gustatory pathways in the brain consist of interacting and dynamic feed-forward and top-down pathways”? More specifically, I am not sure how the feed-forward and top-down pathways come together. ==== ==== Q:  What does the article mean when it says “gustatory pathways in the brain consist of interacting and dynamic feed-forward and top-down pathways”? More specifically, I am not sure how the feed-forward and top-down pathways come together. ====
  
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 **RavioliJaguar** **RavioliJaguar**
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What is a segregated pathway? ==== ==== Q:  What is a segregated pathway? ====
  
-  * A segregated pathway is used to carry abundant information to a particular location of the brain via multiple pathways as opposed to only one. This increases efficiency and allows information to be processed and transmitted more quickly and without the risk of all of the information being lost if there is damage to one of the pathways. +A segregated pathway is used to carry abundant information to a particular location of the brain via multiple pathways as opposed to only one. This increases efficiency and allows information to be processed and transmitted more quickly and without the risk of all of the information being lost if there is damage to one of the pathways.
-  * Cloutman, L. L., Binney, R. J., Morris, D. M., Parker, G. J. M., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2013). Using in vivo probabilistic tractography to reveal two segregated dorsal ‘language-cognitive’ pathways in the human brain. //Brain and Language//, //127//(2), 230–240. +
-  * [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2013.06.005|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2013.06.005]]DecimalSponsor+
  
 +Cloutman, L. L., Binney, R. J., Morris, D. M., Parker, G. J. M., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2013). Using in vivo probabilistic tractography to reveal two segregated dorsal ‘language-cognitive’ pathways in the human brain. //Brain and Language//, //127//(2), 230–240. [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2013.06.005|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2013.06.005]]
 +
 +DecimalSponsor
 +
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What is the difference between labeled line and ensemble code? ==== ==== Q:  What is the difference between labeled line and ensemble code? ====
  
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   * Ensemble code otherwise known as “across neuron hypothesis” says coding for taste comes from a response from ALL cells involved, not just those with the biggest response [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?loHgNy|(Purves et al., 2001)]] AmbientBenefit   * Ensemble code otherwise known as “across neuron hypothesis” says coding for taste comes from a response from ALL cells involved, not just those with the biggest response [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?loHgNy|(Purves et al., 2001)]] AmbientBenefit
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Why does the temporal response need to be able to distinguish between two tastes more specifically than the broadly tuned neuron if the overall purpose is to distinguish between harmful and helpful substances? Based on Page 5 of the PDF, “Coding in the brainstem and thalamus”. ==== ==== Q:  Why does the temporal response need to be able to distinguish between two tastes more specifically than the broadly tuned neuron if the overall purpose is to distinguish between harmful and helpful substances? Based on Page 5 of the PDF, “Coding in the brainstem and thalamus”. ====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What exactly is the role of the ‘pontine parabrachial nucleus (PBN)’, and specifically, how does it project signals to the various areas of the brain used in “feeding and/or taste memory formation” ==== ==== Q:  What exactly is the role of the ‘pontine parabrachial nucleus (PBN)’, and specifically, how does it project signals to the various areas of the brain used in “feeding and/or taste memory formation” ====
  
 “Neurons in the pontine parabrachial nucleus (PBN) transduce signals for the general visceral sensory, somatic sensory, gustatory, and autonomic nervous systems, and the various PBN neurons that perform these functions are intermingled.” (Maeda, N, et al. “Spatial Differences in Molecular Characteristics of the Pontine Parabrachial Nucleus.” //Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports.//, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 3 Nov. 2009, [[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19664607|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19664607]].). Essentially the PBN takes physical energy, converts it into nervous signals and is sent to various sensory systems. -(ZeroCanary) “Neurons in the pontine parabrachial nucleus (PBN) transduce signals for the general visceral sensory, somatic sensory, gustatory, and autonomic nervous systems, and the various PBN neurons that perform these functions are intermingled.” (Maeda, N, et al. “Spatial Differences in Molecular Characteristics of the Pontine Parabrachial Nucleus.” //Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports.//, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 3 Nov. 2009, [[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19664607|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19664607]].). Essentially the PBN takes physical energy, converts it into nervous signals and is sent to various sensory systems. -(ZeroCanary)
  
 +\\
 +\\
 ===== Cortical representation of taste ===== ===== Cortical representation of taste =====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What does “taste maps for saccharin are plastic” mean?  ==== ==== Q:  What does “taste maps for saccharin are plastic” mean?  ====
  
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 > Gutierrez, R., & Simon, S. A. (2011). Chemosensory processing in the taste – reward pathway. //Flavour and Fragrance Journal//, //26//(4), 231–238. [[https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.2050|https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.2050]] > Gutierrez, R., & Simon, S. A. (2011). Chemosensory processing in the taste – reward pathway. //Flavour and Fragrance Journal//, //26//(4), 231–238. [[https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.2050|https://doi.org/10.1002/ffj.2050]]
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What is chemotopic organization? (Binder, Hirokawa, & Windhorst, 2009) ==== ==== Q:  What is chemotopic organization? (Binder, Hirokawa, & Windhorst, 2009) ====
  
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 **Mobilesuper** **Mobilesuper**
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What type of graph is a “topographical representation”? ==== ==== Q:  What type of graph is a “topographical representation”? ====
  
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 > --AgentCharter > --AgentCharter
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  What role does the somatosensory system play in the analyzing different types of food? ==== ==== Q:  What role does the somatosensory system play in the analyzing different types of food? ====
  
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 [[https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/26.4.371|https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/26.4.371]] [[https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/26.4.371|https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/26.4.371]]
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  can we point of the area in the brain in Mango where gustation occurs? (“Gustatory Cortex,” n.d.) ==== ==== Q:  can we point of the area in the brain in Mango where gustation occurs? (“Gustatory Cortex,” n.d.) ====
  
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 **Mobilesuper** **Mobilesuper**
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Why does the temporal response need to be able to distinguish between two tastes more specifically than the broadly tuned neuron if the overall purpose is to distinguish between harmful and helpful substances? Based on Page 5 of the PDF, “Coding in the brainstem and thalamus”. ==== ==== Q:  Why does the temporal response need to be able to distinguish between two tastes more specifically than the broadly tuned neuron if the overall purpose is to distinguish between harmful and helpful substances? Based on Page 5 of the PDF, “Coding in the brainstem and thalamus”. ====
  
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 AnthonyCate AnthonyCate
  
 +\\
 +\\
 ===== Cognitive implications of taste coding ===== ===== Cognitive implications of taste coding =====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Do people get a similar memory recall from taste as people do with scent? Or are they different in that regard? ==== ==== Q:  Do people get a similar memory recall from taste as people do with scent? Or are they different in that regard? ====
  
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   * If you are referring to remembering something from a smell based on associative learning, the same thing can sort of happen with taste**:** “Learning through the taste system is intimately allied with GI consequences. The animal knows two facts: what the chemical was (taste), and what it did (GI). This information permits it to tailor its chemical selection to full individual advantage over a lifetime.” [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?6RHRmf|(Scott, 2011)]] AmbientBenefit   * If you are referring to remembering something from a smell based on associative learning, the same thing can sort of happen with taste**:** “Learning through the taste system is intimately allied with GI consequences. The animal knows two facts: what the chemical was (taste), and what it did (GI). This information permits it to tailor its chemical selection to full individual advantage over a lifetime.” [[https://www.zotero.org/google-docs/?6RHRmf|(Scott, 2011)]] AmbientBenefit
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  How do you gain or lose the different types of TRCs? For example some people like salt more than others, or have an acquired taste for bitter things, do they have more type II TRCs, or G-protein coupled receptors? ==== ==== Q:  How do you gain or lose the different types of TRCs? For example some people like salt more than others, or have an acquired taste for bitter things, do they have more type II TRCs, or G-protein coupled receptors? ====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  If most electrophysiological recordings are performed on anesthetized animals, doesn’t this mean that if the same tastant experiments were conducted when the animals are awake that results could be different and produce a different outcome? How do researchers combat this? ==== ==== Q:  If most electrophysiological recordings are performed on anesthetized animals, doesn’t this mean that if the same tastant experiments were conducted when the animals are awake that results could be different and produce a different outcome? How do researchers combat this? ====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Is the gustatory system and the somatosensory system the only thing involved in analyzing food features? ==== ==== Q:  Is the gustatory system and the somatosensory system the only thing involved in analyzing food features? ====
  
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 [[https://doi.org/10.1038/486S7a|https://doi.org/10.1038/486S7a]] [[https://doi.org/10.1038/486S7a|https://doi.org/10.1038/486S7a]]
  
-**-** 
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Why does the peripheral gustatory processing have a much simpler mechanism over the central nervous system gustatory processing? ==== ==== Q:  Why does the peripheral gustatory processing have a much simpler mechanism over the central nervous system gustatory processing? ====
  
 I don’t have any information on the scientific functional reason why this is but simply said Peripheral means on the side/ secondary and Central means primary/ main. Hence why the processing in Peripheral Gustatory System is simpler compared to the processing in the Central nervous gustatory system. -(ZeroCanary) I don’t have any information on the scientific functional reason why this is but simply said Peripheral means on the side/ secondary and Central means primary/ main. Hence why the processing in Peripheral Gustatory System is simpler compared to the processing in the Central nervous gustatory system. -(ZeroCanary)
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Do people like sour candies (even though sour tastes are generally unpleasant) because the sweet flavor overpowers the sour? So why do some prefer sour candy over other candy? ==== ==== Q:  Do people like sour candies (even though sour tastes are generally unpleasant) because the sweet flavor overpowers the sour? So why do some prefer sour candy over other candy? ====
  
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 [[https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/28.2.173|https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/28.2.173]] [[https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/28.2.173|https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/28.2.173]]
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  With so much biological and evolutionary support for how and why human gustation works the way it does, why do humans still find food that is very unhealthy, and that the body does not need, so appealing? ==== ==== Q:  With so much biological and evolutionary support for how and why human gustation works the way it does, why do humans still find food that is very unhealthy, and that the body does not need, so appealing? ====
  
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     * [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.010|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.010]]DivideSegment     * [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.010|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.010]]DivideSegment
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Under the assumption that taste preferences change with age, especially considering differences between children and adults (like how most kids normally hate the taste of vegetables that adults may otherwise enjoy), how does the taste encoding differ in children versus adults? Does associative learning play a larger role in one group versus the other? ==== ==== Q:  Under the assumption that taste preferences change with age, especially considering differences between children and adults (like how most kids normally hate the taste of vegetables that adults may otherwise enjoy), how does the taste encoding differ in children versus adults? Does associative learning play a larger role in one group versus the other? ====
  
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 WelcomeSoda: There is not a huge difference in sucrose taste thresholds between younger adults and older adults but there is a difference. This is because adults constantly have new taste buds being made so the difference is not as great as one may think. This means that there could be associate learning at play as well but most of the information I could find focuses on actual biological reactions to food chemistry rather than other psychological factors. Moore, L. M., Nielsen, C. R., & Mistretta, C. M. (1982). Sucrose Taste Thresholds: Age-related Differences. //Journal of Gerontology//, //37//(1), 64–69. [[https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/37.1.64|https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/37.1.64  ]] WelcomeSoda: There is not a huge difference in sucrose taste thresholds between younger adults and older adults but there is a difference. This is because adults constantly have new taste buds being made so the difference is not as great as one may think. This means that there could be associate learning at play as well but most of the information I could find focuses on actual biological reactions to food chemistry rather than other psychological factors. Moore, L. M., Nielsen, C. R., & Mistretta, C. M. (1982). Sucrose Taste Thresholds: Age-related Differences. //Journal of Gerontology//, //37//(1), 64–69. [[https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/37.1.64|https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/37.1.64  ]]
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Why is it that some medicine injections to other areas of the body result in a patient tasting something? ==== ==== Q:  Why is it that some medicine injections to other areas of the body result in a patient tasting something? ====
  
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 [[https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6955-9-1|https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6955-9-1]] [[https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6955-9-1|https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6955-9-1]]
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Does the release of neurotransmitter dopamine playing into the frontal cortex and reward value?  ==== ==== Q:  Does the release of neurotransmitter dopamine playing into the frontal cortex and reward value?  ====
  
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 [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.09.018|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.09.018]] [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.09.018|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.09.018]]
  
 +\\
 +\\
 ===== Implications for health and clinical disorders  ===== ===== Implications for health and clinical disorders  =====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  Can this science be used to help with dieting or health benefits? Reduce the type II TRCs that respond to sweets, or reduce the ENaCs to reduce attraction to salt for those with high blood pressure? ==== ==== Q:  Can this science be used to help with dieting or health benefits? Reduce the type II TRCs that respond to sweets, or reduce the ENaCs to reduce attraction to salt for those with high blood pressure? ====
  
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   * ShelfOpus   * ShelfOpus
  
-==== Q:  can certain types of brain trauma affect the functioning of the gustatory system? ====+\\ 
 +==== Q:  Can certain types of brain trauma affect the functioning of the gustatory system? ====
  
 Taste Perception: The primary taste cortex is located in the rostrodorsal insula. Damage to the right insula caused ipsilateral taste recognition and intensity deficits. Damage to the left insula caused ipsilateral deficit in taste intensity and a bilateral deficit in taste intensity. Taste information from both sides of the tongue goes through the left insula, based on the testing done with left-hemisphere stroke patients. Taste Perception: The primary taste cortex is located in the rostrodorsal insula. Damage to the right insula caused ipsilateral taste recognition and intensity deficits. Damage to the left insula caused ipsilateral deficit in taste intensity and a bilateral deficit in taste intensity. Taste information from both sides of the tongue goes through the left insula, based on the testing done with left-hemisphere stroke patients.
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 -PoloBravo -PoloBravo
  
-  * **“Olfactory dysfunction is common following traumatic brain injury, occurring in approximately 20% of patients depending on the mechanism of injury… In contrast, gustatory disturbances are infrequent, occurring in less than 1% of cases;” “With the higher prevalence of traumatic injuries to the olfactory system than the gustatory system, it follows that patients with brain injury reporting taste disturbances more likely have olfactory deficits.” ** +  * “Olfactory dysfunction is common following traumatic brain injury, occurring in approximately 20% of patients depending on the mechanism of injury… In contrast, gustatory disturbances are infrequent, occurring in less than 1% of cases;” “With the higher prevalence of traumatic injuries to the olfactory system than the gustatory system, it follows that patients with brain injury reporting taste disturbances more likely have olfactory deficits.”  
-    * **Reiter and Costanzo, “Chemosensory Impairment after Traumatic Brain Injury.”** +    * Reiter and Costanzo, “Chemosensory Impairment after Traumatic Brain Injury.” 
-    * **[[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3798071/|https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3798071/]] --RespondLlama**+    * [[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3798071/|https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3798071/]] --RespondLlama
  
-> **Reiter, E. R., & Costanzo, R. M. (2012). Chemosensory Impairment after Traumatic Brain Injury: Assessment and Management. //International Neurotrauma Letter//, //23//, 3.**+> Reiter, E. R., & Costanzo, R. M. (2012). Chemosensory Impairment after Traumatic Brain Injury: Assessment and Management. //International Neurotrauma Letter//, //23//, 3.
  
-**“Therefore, it is clear that alterations in digestive physiology have a significant effect on taste responses in neurons located at the first synaptic relay along the taste system.” **+“Therefore, it is clear that alterations in digestive physiology have a significant effect on taste responses in neurons located at the first synaptic relay along the taste system.” 
  
-**This states that digestive physiological changes in an individual can affect the ability of that individual to process taste stimuli. This could extend beyond just brain trauma, but I think that the gustatory system in the body is complex and involved enough that even subtle, seemingly unrelated systems in the body really could affect taste responses in neurons.**+This states that digestive physiological changes in an individual can affect the ability of that individual to process taste stimuli. This could extend beyond just brain trauma, but I think that the gustatory system in the body is complex and involved enough that even subtle, seemingly unrelated systems in the body really could affect taste responses in neurons.
  
-**“Better control of dietary compensation is highly desirable and needed.” **+“Better control of dietary compensation is highly desirable and needed.” 
  
-**Individuals’ bodies will naturally attempt to develop a proper healthy dietary system, and trauma to these processes within the body effect large portions of bodily functions as a result. Trauma to the body greatly affects the body’s ability to properly and efficiently process taste stimuli, and this includes trauma to the brain.**+Individuals’ bodies will naturally attempt to develop a proper healthy dietary system, and trauma to these processes within the body effect large portions of bodily functions as a result. Trauma to the body greatly affects the body’s ability to properly and efficiently process taste stimuli, and this includes trauma to the brain.
  
-**Hill, David L. “Neural Plasticity in the Gustatory System.” //Nutrition Reviews// 62, no. 11 Pt 2 (November 2004): S208–41.**+Hill, David L. “Neural Plasticity in the Gustatory System.” //Nutrition Reviews// 62, no. 11 Pt 2 (November 2004): S208–41.
  
-**Karasov, William H., and Angela E. Douglas. “Comparative Digestive Physiology.” //Comprehensive Physiology// 3, no. 2 (April 2013): 741–83.** **[[https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c110054|https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c110054]].**+Karasov, William H., and Angela E. Douglas. “Comparative Digestive Physiology.” //Comprehensive Physiology// 3, no. 2 (April 2013): 741–83.** **[[https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c110054|https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c110054]].
  
-**Morais, S., L. E. C. Conceição, I. Rønnestad, W. Koven, C. Cahu, J. L. Zambonino Infante, and M. T. Dinis. “Dietary Neutral Lipid Level and Source in Marine Fish Larvae: Effects on Digestive Physiology and Food Intake.” //Aquaculture//, Larvi 2005, 268, no. 1 (August 22, 2007): 106–22.** **[[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.04.033|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.04.033]].**+Morais, S., L. E. C. Conceição, I. Rønnestad, W. Koven, C. Cahu, J. L. Zambonino Infante, and M. T. Dinis. “Dietary Neutral Lipid Level and Source in Marine Fish Larvae: Effects on Digestive Physiology and Food Intake.” //Aquaculture//, Larvi 2005, 268, no. 1 (August 22, 2007): 106–22. [[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.04.033|https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.04.033]].
  
-**--AgentCharter**+--AgentCharter
  
 +\\
 +\\
 ===== Directions for future research ===== ===== Directions for future research =====
  
 +\\
 ==== Q:  How would future experiments delve into the other parts of the food stimulus? ==== ==== Q:  How would future experiments delve into the other parts of the food stimulus? ====
  
-**ExactTulip: “Gustatory dysfunction may indeed be related to the normal ageing process. However, in many cases, what is perceived as a taste defect is truly a primary defect in olfaction. Other than smell dysfunction, the most frequent causes of taste dysfunction are prior upper respiratory infection, head injury, drug use, and idiopathic causes.” **+ExactTulip: “Gustatory dysfunction may indeed be related to the normal ageing process. However, in many cases, what is perceived as a taste defect is truly a primary defect in olfaction. Other than smell dysfunction, the most frequent causes of taste dysfunction are prior upper respiratory infection, head injury, drug use, and idiopathic causes.” 
  
-**Boyce, J. M., & Shone, G. R. (2006). Effects of ageing on smell and taste. //Postgraduate Medical Journal//, //82//(966), 239–241.** [[https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2005.039453|**https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2005.039453**]]+Boyce, J. M., & Shone, G. R. (2006). Effects of ageing on smell and taste. //Postgraduate Medical Journal//, //82//(966), 239–241. [[https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2005.039453|https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2005.039453]]
  
 Hunger triggers endocannabinoid receptors, making your olfactory system more sensitive and more active, to salt and sugar in particular. Future experiments could study how the increased activity of the endocannabinoid receptors affect binge eating and/or how its effects vary by culture. (CoolActive) Hunger triggers endocannabinoid receptors, making your olfactory system more sensitive and more active, to salt and sugar in particular. Future experiments could study how the increased activity of the endocannabinoid receptors affect binge eating and/or how its effects vary by culture. (CoolActive)
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 [[https://www.discoverydcode.com/dcode/articles/food-taste-better-hungry/|https://www.discoverydcode.com/dcode/articles/food-taste-better-hungry/]]This research article analyzes the changes of olfactory and gustation processes with age, and findings seem to support that taste is incredibly dependent on smell. This opens the door to different types of future experiments, such as observing patients with a lessened sense of smell and analyzing the correlation between their olfactory strength and how stimulating certain food aromas or tastes may be in comparison to a controlled group, or those considered to have an average sense of smell. [[https://www.discoverydcode.com/dcode/articles/food-taste-better-hungry/|https://www.discoverydcode.com/dcode/articles/food-taste-better-hungry/]]This research article analyzes the changes of olfactory and gustation processes with age, and findings seem to support that taste is incredibly dependent on smell. This opens the door to different types of future experiments, such as observing patients with a lessened sense of smell and analyzing the correlation between their olfactory strength and how stimulating certain food aromas or tastes may be in comparison to a controlled group, or those considered to have an average sense of smell.
 +
 +\\
 +----
 +\\
  
 ====== Bibliography ====== ====== Bibliography ======
 +\\
  
 Are kids’ taste buds different from adults’? (2009, September 21). Retrieved January 29, 2019, from [[https://recipes.howstuffworks.com/menus/kids-taste-buds.htm|https://recipes.howstuffworks.com/menus/kids-taste-buds.htm]] Are kids’ taste buds different from adults’? (2009, September 21). Retrieved January 29, 2019, from [[https://recipes.howstuffworks.com/menus/kids-taste-buds.htm|https://recipes.howstuffworks.com/menus/kids-taste-buds.htm]]
teaching/cndm/cndm_topic_gustation.1565986190.txt.gz · Last modified: 2019/08/16 16:09 by anthony