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+[[teaching:cndm:cndm_guides|Back to topics page]]
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 ====== Topic: Social cognition ======
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--05-05
+Social decision making.
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 ====== Article Discussed ======
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 Rilling, J. K., & Sanfey, A. G. (2011). The Neuroscience of Social Decision-Making. //Annual Review of Psychology//, //62//(1), 23–48. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131647
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 ====== Brief Summary ======
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 The article from week 14 looked at “The Neuroscience of Social Decision-Making” and essentially summarized research and knowledge about the neural systems influencing social decision-making. The class discussed various themes and ideas, including the experiments discussed in the article, particular those related to game theory. Question 29 involving the prisoners’ dilemma, which was unanswered during class time, came up and students speculated about the answer. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was briefly explained and discussed. The class also discussed whether testosterone levels decrease empathy and communicated about social decision-making in non-human species.
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 ====== Cognitive process neuroimaging analysis  ======
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 Neurosynth term: “social cognition”.
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 ===== Top 5 Pubmed Articles =====
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 : Patin A, Hurlemann R. Social cognition. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 2015;228:271-303. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-16522-6_10. Review. PubMed PMID: 25977087.
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 : Happé F, Cook JL, Bird G. The Structure of Social Cognition: In(ter)dependence of Sociocognitive Processes. Annu Rev Psychol. 2017 Jan 3;68:243-267. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044046. Epub 2016 Sep 21. Review. PubMed PMID: 27687121.
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 ===== Top 5 Neurosynth articles =====
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 |[[http://neurosynth.org/studies/18261933/|**Evidence of altered cortical and amygdala activation during social decision-making in schizophrenia.**]]                          |**Baas D, Aleman A, Vink M, Ramsey NF, de Haan EH, Kahn RS**          |**NeuroImage**                             |**0.314**|
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 |[[http://neurosynth.org/studies/22695257/|**Neural activity during emotion recognition after combined cognitive plus social cognitive training in schizophrenia.**]]          |**Hooker CI, Bruce L, Fisher M, Verosky SC, Miyakawa A, Vinogradov S**|**Schizophrenia research**                 |**0.293**|
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 ===== Neurosynth map for the term =====
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 {{teaching:image1_social.png?373x712}}
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 **4.7.2 **
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 ===== Brain region chosen for the term =====
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 Brain region: Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex
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  {{teaching:image2_social.png?319x625}}
- Other Neurosynth terms associated with this brain region
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-| **Name**                                                                                | **z-score**| **Posterior prob.**| **Func. conn. (r)**| **Meta-analytic coact. (r)**|
+===== Other Neurosynth terms associated with this brain region =====
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+| **Name**                                                                                | **z-score**| **Posterior prob.**| **Func. conn. <nowiki>(r)</nowiki>**| **Meta-analytic coact. <nowiki>(r)</nowiki>**|
 | [[http://neurosynth.org/analyses/terms/medial%20prefrontal|medial prefrontal]]          | 9.54       | 0.81               | 0.51               | 0.48                        |
 | [[http://neurosynth.org/analyses/terms/medial|medial]]                                  | 7.13       | 0.73               | 0.44               | 0.41                        |
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 | [[http://neurosynth.org/analyses/terms/emotional|emotional]]                            | 4.73       | 0.68               | 0.17               | 0.14                        |
 | [[http://neurosynth.org/analyses/terms/dorsomedial%20prefrontal|dorsomedial prefrontal]]| 4.65       | 0.8                | 0.26               |
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 ====== Questions posed by the class ======
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 ===== Background vocabulary =====
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 ==== Q:  What is a social-emotional bias? ====
 **MileImport:** An emotional bias is a distortion in cognition and decision-making due to emotional factors, which can be positive or negative dependent upon whatever emotion is invoked. There is also a magnitude of bias that is directly correlated to the magnitude of the emotion felt. There was not a lot of information regarding social-emotional bias, with the main resource on the phenomenon referring to social-emotional bias as emotional bias within the scope of social behaviors, often resulting in pro-social or anti-social behaviors.
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 ==== Q:  What is a somatic marker? (p. 33) ====
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 “Somatic Marker Hypothesis.”
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 ===== Definitions of altruism and reciprocity =====
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 ==== Q:  What is altruism? ====
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 **CoolActive**: Altruism is any behavior that is designed to increase another person’s welfare without providing a direct reward to the person performing the behavior. (“Understanding Altruism: Self and Other Concerns – Principles of Social Psychology – 1st International Edition,” n.d.)
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 ==== Q:  What exactly is altruistic punishment? ====
 **WelcomeSoda**: According to the first website, “punishment is altruistic if it is costly for the punisher and if the punished person’s behavior changes such that others benefit.” This website particularly mentions that by this definition, motivation does not matter. If someone does not have selfless motivation, their act, or given punishment, can still be altruistic. The importance of motivation is highly debated in philosophy. In the scientific article, it is said that humans have a natural desire for order and altruistic punishment is usually for group survival. (Fowler, 2005)
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 ==== Q:  What are some examples of altruistic punishment? ====
 **IsotopeNirvana**: Altruistic punishment is defined as the punishment of a transgressor by a third-party that was not directly affected by the transgression. Some examples of this type of punishment would be the judicial process, arrests, and trials.(“Altruistic Punishment (SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY) - IResearchNet,” n.d.)
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 ==== Q:  What is the difference between Altruism and Pro-social Behavior? ====
 **TwinNevada:** Altruism is defined as behavior that benefits other organisms but has some costs. Altruism is often referred to as a behavior that is meant to benefit another person rather than oneself. On the other hand, prosocial behavior refers to acts intended to benefit others. These are acts that are positively valued by society. Prosocial behavior benefits others or has positive social consequences. (“New Page 1 - AP Psychology Community,” n.d.)
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 ==== Q:  What is reciprocal exchange? ====
 **PoloBravo**: Reciprocal exchange in social psychology is a transfer of goods not involving the public market that is based on their social role in a group. It can involve 2 or more people. An example of this is the Kula Exchange, which takes place in the Trobriand Islands near Papua New Guinea. (“reciprocal exchange definition,” n.d.)
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 ==== Q:  Are there more studies on reciprocal altruism? ====
 **TelecomElegant**: Although no study was conducted, the following article provides a great discussion regarding some of the misunderstandings they believe people have about reciprocal altruism. One interesting idea mentioned is how researchers fail to investigate kinship and reciprocity the same dependent on which is being studied. The authors note, “When testing for reciprocity, kinship is always controlled for (statistically or otherwise), while when testing for kinship, reciprocity is generally ignored.” (Schino & Aureli, 2010)
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 ==== Q:  In the article, they define altruism as doing something that benefits others at your own personal cost. I know there have been debates about whether true altruism exists. What are the more recent findings of whether it does exist or not? If it does, what are some examples? ====
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 The best article I found in relation to true altruism was called //Risking Your Life without a Second Thought: Intuitive Decision-Making and Extreme Altruism.// Extreme altruism was displayed by Carnegie Hero Medal Recipients (CHMRs), people who risked their lives to save others. Rand and Epstein collected data from published interviews of these recipients in the USA and Canada. They “extracted all quoted material spoken directly by the CHMR in which they described the decision-making process involved in their altruistic activity (i.e. //why// they did what they did)”. Some examples include “Christine Marty, a 21 year college student, rescued a drowning 69-year-old trapped in a car during a flash flood, and stated “I'm thankful I was able to act and not think about it.” Daryl Starnes, a 70-year-old man, climbed into a burning vehicle to rescue a 48-year-old woman trapped inside after a car accident, and stated “I just did what I felt like I needed to do. You don't think about someone making that big a deal out of it.”” What they found was that the CHMR’s reacted immediately to the situation indicating that their response was an intuitive response, not a deliberate response. After reading this, it makes me question if there is a definitional difference between extreme altruism and true altruism. To me, I believe they are the same and yes, it exists.
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 ===== Game theory and altruism =====
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 ==== Q:  Why are reciprocal altruism relationships said to be ‘inherently unstable? ====
 **ShelfOpus:** This article argues that “reciprocity is a basic mechanism facilitating cooperation, we can expect interaction that evolves around it to be complex, non-optimal, and resistant to change.” The problem with reciprocal altruism is that is assumes that preferences stay the same and do not vary. Therefore, reciprocal mechanisms can exploit cooperators by those with whom they have coordinated on reciprocity. (Danielson, 2002)
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 ==== Q:  Can we clarify what game theory is again? How does it relate to the article from this week? ====
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 Game theory - prisoner’s dilemma is an example. Shows how two individuals decisions/actions impact each other based on their goals. (Myerson, 2013)
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 ==== Q:  Can game theory be applied to every decision made? ====
 **ZeroCanary**: no because not every decision requires difficult decision making. Some decisions are obvious and do not require the game theory approach. Example being if you are a vegetarian and are offered chicken for dinner, the decision takes no time at all to react negatively to the chicken.
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 ==== Q:  We played a game similar to the PD game in a large Intro to World Politics class. We played three rounds. If you both cooperated you received a B. If you both defected you got Cs. If one defected and one cooperated, the defector got an A and the cooperator got an F. By the last round, almost everyone defected. In the article it says about 50% defect. Why did more defect in my class? Could it be related to size, since the class was so large people were able to dehumanize their opponent more? Or do you think it was something else like pressure from the professor or the type of people in the class etc. ====
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 So, there was likely a number of factors influencing the high defection rates in the International Studies course. Some of these most likely included that cooperation often decreases towards later trials, that defection did not involve many negative consequences, the lack of socialization of subjects, the large size of the class and university, the lack of knowledge of related psychological theories, the reinforcement of the competitive norm, and personality type.
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 ===== Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) =====
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 ==== Q:  Can someone explain how transcranial magnetic stimulation works? ====
 **PaintLevel**: Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a research tool that initiates current flow in the brain that can temporarily excite or inhibit focal brain regions by delivering an electric stimulus into a magnetic field created by a previously introduced magnetic coil. Stimulation to the motor cortex, for example, can result in a finger twitch. (Hallett, 2000)
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 ==== Q:  What is rTMS? ====
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 (Kosslyn et al., 1999, p. 1)
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 ==== Q:  What parts of the brain are activated in social versus nonsocial rewards scenarios? ====
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 -This article suggests that both social and non-social rewards are essentially derived from the same main portions of the brain, with the striatum having the largest known influence. Due to the striatum having a large role in repetitive behavior, it is also known to have a large influence in contributing to conditions such as substance addiction, this indicates a correlation between the rewards people may receive from a substance and social rewards such as praise of recognition.
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 ===== Sex hormones and empathy =====
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 ==== Q:  How can we naturally increase oxytocin (OT) levels in order to thereby increase empathy? ====
 **WindowComrade**: Two of the easiest ways to increase oxytocin levels are to engage in positive conversation and physical contact. According to wikiHow, being more compassionate to those closest to you can increase oxytocin levels. Giving compliments, encouragement, and focusing on positive reinforcement are other ways of naturally increasing oxytocin levels. Any form of positive social interaction seems to be the most effective way of naturally increasing oxytocin levels. (“How to Naturally Increase Oxytocin Levels,” n.d.)
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 ==== Q:  Are men naturally less empathetic due to higher levels of testosterone? ====
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 Upon repeating the RMET, those who had received testosterone took significantly longer to identify the emotions being expressed in the pictures than those who had received the placebo, indicating that the hormone did indeed impair their capacity for empathy.(“Testosterone Decreases The Ability To Feel Empathy By Interrupting Brain Networks,” n.d.)”
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 ===== Cortical regions associated with social decision making =====
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 ==== Q:  Do people with psychosocial disorders have damage to their anterior insula? ====
 **SOCIALANVIL:** In one research paper I found, they were examining borderline personality disorder and anger-related aggression. They were looking at how different neural systems work to control or not control BPD. This study was done in 33 women with BPD as well as healthy controls. The overall finding from the research was the discovery of a single, large network showing a significantly stronger increase in connectivity from baseline to the aggression phase in female patients with BPD compared to healthy women. This network consisted of regions in the anterior and posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, superior and middle temporal gyrus, hippocampus, insula, ventrolateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, superior parietal lobe, thalamus, precentral and postcentral gyrus, caudate, pallidum, cerebellum, middle occipital lobe, lingual gyrus, calcarine sulcus, and fusiform gyrus. Therefore, from this research, I would likely answer yes to this question of whether or not people with psychosocial disorders have damage to their anterior insula. (Ueltzhöffer, Herpertz, Krauch, Schmahl, & Bertsch, 2019)
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 ==== Q:  Is the prefrontal cortex the only brain area that plays a role in social decision-making? ====
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 {{teaching:image4_social.png?431x375}}
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 ===== Facial expressions =====
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 ==== Q:  What facial characteristics are associated with trustworthiness? ====
 **RavioliJaguar:** Facial expressions can be potent signs during social interactions. In this paper by Campelllone and Kring, they examine the facial expressions congruent and incongruent during Trust Game. In situations where smiling and laughter were noted, both players were noted to act more trusting while in situations where no emotions are angry facial expressions were present participants were less likely to trust. This study found that though both angry and happy emotions trigger the amygdala to process affective information and decision making, anger habituates the potential “threat” to safety causing the participants to trust less. (Campellone & Kring, 2013)
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 ===== Altruism in non-human animals =====
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 ==== Q:  Are there examples of altruism in animals in which its not extended to relatives? ====
 **VideoSport**: Yes. A number of species have been shown to commit acts of altruism to animals not related to them(“Is Animal Altruism Real?,” 2013). Humpback whales have saved seals from killer whales and rats will save unrelated rats who are trapped even if they lose food doing so. There are examples of Bonobos and apes helping unrelated others as well. Scientists believe this may be because high level cognition involving thoughts of morality is not what motivates altruism but rather emotional instincts related to empathy(“Animal Altruism”).
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 ==== Q:  According to the article, humans, to a greater extent than other animals, learn from others. Why is this the case? ====
 **DivideSegment:** Humans have a large dependency on others for information. Humans have more advanced brains than animals, they intelligently learn as children from social information and situations. (Koenig & Sabbagh, 2013)
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 ==== Q:  The paper states that primates who share and have strong social associations have larger prefrontal cortices. Do pack animals (wolves/ dogs) also have this similarity, or is that something different? ====
 **AmbientBenefit:** Basically, research from animals doesn’t show so much that size impacts social associations but it does show that prefrontal cortices are involved in social motivation. The PFC is shown to work with other areas of the brain like the NAc (nucleus accumbens) and VTA (ventral tegmental area). The article mostly focuses on rodents, and states that “Lesions of regions within the rodent PFC have demonstrated its’ importance in social functioning.” The review shows a lot of studies that show that PFC is activated during mice social interaction, and it parallels this with disorders in humans and looks at similarities and differences. (Bicks, Koike, Akbarian, & Morishita, 2015)
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 ====== Bibliograpy ======
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 Adolphs, R. (2009). The Social Brain: Neural Basis of Social Knowledge. //Annual Review of Psychology//, //60//, 693–716. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163514
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 Understanding Altruism: Self and Other Concerns – Principles of Social Psychology – 1st International Edition. (n.d.). Retrieved May 5, 2019, from https://opentextbc.ca/socialpsychology/chapter/understanding-altruism-self-and-other-concerns/
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+----
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+=== Date of summary document ===
+-05-05